Understanding the Greater Sunda and Lesser Sunda in Indonesian Ornithology

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*Heri Tarmizi

The distinction between the Greater Sunda and Lesser Sunda Islands in Indonesian ornithology is more than a geographic division; it represents a fundamental difference in the ecological and evolutionary processes that have shaped the avian diversity of the region.

Introduction

Indonesia, an archipelago comprising over 17,000 islands, is a hotspot for biodiversity, particularly in the realm of ornithology. Among the many biogeographical regions within Indonesia, the Greater Sunda and Lesser Sunda Islands hold particular significance. These terms are more than mere geographic descriptors; they represent distinct ecological regions with unique avian distributions. Understanding the differences between the Greater Sunda and Lesser Sunda, as well as their roles in the distribution of bird species, is essential for both ornithologists and conservationists.

The Greater Sunda: A Cradle of Avian Diversity

The Greater Sunda Islands consist of Sumatra, Borneo (Kalimantan), Java, and Bali. These islands are part of the Sunda Shelf, a shallow extension of the continental shelf of Southeast Asia. During the Pleistocene glaciations, sea levels were lower, and these islands were connected to the Asian mainland, allowing the migration and distribution of species across the region. This historical connection has resulted in the Greater Sunda Islands sharing many species with mainland Asia, particularly in terms of flora and fauna, including birds.

Avian Diversity in the Greater Sunda

The Greater Sunda Islands are characterized by their extensive lowland tropical rainforests, which are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth. These forests provide habitats for a wide variety of bird species, many of which are endemic to the region. For example, Sumatra and Borneo host species such as the Bornean Peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron schleiermacheri) and the Sumatran Ground-cuckoo (Carpococcyx viridis), which are not found anywhere else in the world.

The island of Java, despite its smaller size, also supports a rich avian diversity. Java's volcanic soils and varied topography have created a range of habitats, from lowland forests to montane ecosystems, each hosting its unique bird communities. Endemic species such as the Javan Hawk-eagle (Nisaetus bartelsi), a critically endangered raptor, underscore the island’s importance in bird conservation efforts.

Bali, the smallest of the Greater Sunda Islands, serves as a transition zone between the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands. Its avifauna includes species typical of both regions, making it a critical area for studying biogeographical transitions. The Bali Myna (Leucopsar rothschildi), one of the most endangered birds in the world, is native to this island and highlights the conservation challenges in the region.

The Lesser Sunda: A Realm of Endemism

The Lesser Sunda Islands stretch from Bali eastward to Timor, encompassing islands such as Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, and Sumba. Unlike the Greater Sunda, the Lesser Sunda Islands were never connected to the Asian mainland. They are part of the Wallacea, a region named after the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, who first recognized the distinct faunal differences between the islands of Bali and Lombok, separated by the narrow Lombok Strait.

Avian Diversity in the Lesser Sunda

The isolation of the Lesser Sunda Islands has led to high levels of endemism. Each island, due to its isolation and varied habitats, has developed its unique assemblage of bird species. For instance, the island of Flores is home to the Flores Monarch (Symposiachrus sacerdotum) and the Flores Hawk-eagle (Nisaetus floris), both of which are endemic and critically endangered.

The Lesser Sunda Islands are also known for their dry climates, in contrast to the humid tropical rainforests of the Greater Sunda. This climatic difference has led to the development of distinct ecosystems such as savannas and monsoon forests, which support bird species that are adapted to these drier conditions. For example, the Timor Figbird (Sphecotheres viridis) and the Sumba Hornbill (Rhyticeros everetti) are examples of species that have adapted to the drier habitats of the Lesser Sunda.

One of the most significant biogeographical barriers in the Lesser Sunda is the Wallace Line, which runs between Bali and Lombok. This line marks the division between the fauna of the Oriental region (Greater Sunda) and the Australasian region (Lesser Sunda). The existence of the Wallace Line emphasizes the distinct evolutionary paths taken by species on either side of the line. The birds of the Lesser Sunda, therefore, represent a unique blend of Asian and Australasian species, making the region a critical area for studying evolutionary processes and biogeography.

Distributional Significance: Greater Sunda vs. Lesser Sunda

The distinction between the Greater Sunda and Lesser Sunda Islands is not merely geographic; it reflects deep biogeographical and ecological differences that have significant implications for the distribution of bird species.

Historical Biogeography

The biogeographical history of the Greater Sunda Islands is closely tied to their past connections to the Asian mainland. During periods of low sea levels, these islands formed a continuous landmass with Southeast Asia, allowing the migration of species. As sea levels rose, these land connections were severed, leading to the isolation of populations and the eventual speciation of many bird species. The high levels of endemism in the Greater Sunda Islands are a direct result of this historical process.

In contrast, the Lesser Sunda Islands have always been isolated, lying between the Asian and Australian continental shelves. This long-term isolation has fostered the development of unique species that are not found elsewhere. The presence of the Wallace Line further reinforces the idea that the Lesser Sunda represents a distinct biogeographical region with a different evolutionary history compared to the Greater Sunda.

Ecological Niches and Adaptations

The ecological differences between the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands have also shaped the distribution of bird species. The Greater Sunda’s extensive rainforests provide a habitat for a wide range of species, from canopy-dwelling birds to terrestrial foragers. The complexity of these ecosystems allows for high species diversity, with many birds occupying specialized niches.

In contrast, the Lesser Sunda’s drier environments have led to different ecological adaptations. Birds in this region often exhibit traits that allow them to survive in more arid conditions, such as greater tolerance to heat and drought. The different habitats available in the Lesser Sunda, including savannas, mangroves, and dry forests, support a different set of bird species compared to the Greater Sunda.

Conservation Implications

Understanding the distribution of bird species across the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands is crucial for conservation efforts. The high levels of endemism in both regions mean that many species are at risk of extinction due to habitat loss, climate change, and other anthropogenic factors. Conservation strategies must take into account the unique ecological and biogeographical contexts of each region.

In the Greater Sunda, the primary conservation focus is on preserving the remaining lowland rainforests, which are rapidly being lost to logging, agriculture, and urbanization. Protecting these habitats is essential for the survival of many endemic species. For example, conservation efforts for the Sumatran Ground-cuckoo are closely tied to the protection of Sumatra’s remaining forests.

In the Lesser Sunda, conservation efforts must address the challenges posed by the islands’ drier climates and the more fragmented nature of the habitats. Protecting the unique bird species of this region requires a different approach, often involving habitat restoration and the creation of protected areas that encompass the diverse ecosystems found on these islands. Additionally, because many Lesser Sunda species are island endemics with small populations, they are particularly vulnerable to extinction, and conservation efforts must prioritize these species.

Conclusion

The distinction between the Greater Sunda and Lesser Sunda Islands in Indonesian ornithology is more than a geographic division; it represents a fundamental difference in the ecological and evolutionary processes that have shaped the avian diversity of the region. The Greater Sunda Islands, with their historical connections to the Asian mainland and vast rainforests, harbor a rich diversity of bird species, many of which are endemic. In contrast, the Lesser Sunda Islands, with their long-term isolation and unique climatic conditions, support a different set of species, many of which are also endemic.

Understanding these differences is crucial for developing effective conservation strategies for ornithologists and conservationists. The high levels of endemism in both regions mean that many species are at risk and preserving the unique avian diversity of the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands is a critical task. By recognizing these regions' distinct ecological and biogeographical contexts, conservation efforts can be better targeted to protect the unique bird species that inhabit Indonesia’s diverse archipelago.

References

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- MacKinnon, J., & Phillips, K. (1993). A Field Guide to the Birds of Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and Bali. Oxford University Press.

- BirdLife International. (2023). Endemic Bird Areas factsheet: Greater Sundas. Retrieved from [Birdlife]

- Rheindt, F. E., & Edwards, S. V. (2011). Genetic introgression: an integral but neglected component of speciation in birds. The Auk, 128(3), 620-632.

- Monk, K. A., de Fretes, Y., & Reksodiharjo-Lilley, G. (1997). The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. Oxford University Press.